Tonkawa
 Seal of the Tonkawa Tribe of Oklahoma | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| more than 700[1] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| United States (Oklahoma, formerly Texas[2]) | |
| Languages | |
| English, formerly Tonkawa language | |
| Religion | |
| Christianity, Native American Church, traditional tribal religions | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Coahuiltecan[3] |
The Tonkawa are a Native American tribe from Oklahoma and Texas.[2] Their Tonkawa language, now extinct,[4] is a linguistic isolate.[5] Today, Tonkawa people are enrolled in the federally recognized Tonkawa Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma, headquartered in Tonkawa, Oklahoma.[6] They have more than 700 tribal citizens.[1]
Name
[edit]The Tonkawa's autonym is Tickanwa•tic (meaning "real people"). The name Tonkawa is derived from the Waco word, Tonkaweya, meaning "they all stay together".[2][3]
History
[edit]In 1601, the Tonkawa people lived in what is now northwestern Oklahoma.[2] They were made up of related bands.[3] Historically, they were nomadic people, who practiced some horticulture.[1]
The Tonkawa, long thought to have been prehistoric residents of Texas are now thought to have migrated into the state in the late seventeenth century. Arrival in Central Texas is believed to have been just before or during the early European contact period.[7][8][9]
18th century
[edit]
By 1700, Apache and Wichita people had pushed the Tonkawa south to the Red River which forms the border between current-day Oklahoma and Texas. In the 16th century, the Tonkawa tribe probably had around 1,900 members. Their numbers diminished to around 1,600 by the late 17th century due to fatalities from European diseases and conflict with other tribes, most notably the Apache.
In the 1740s, some Tonkawa were involved with the Yojuanes and others as settlers in the San Gabriel Missions of Texas along the San Gabriel River.[10]
In 1758, the Tonkawa along with allied Bidais, Caddos, Wichitas, Comanches, and Yojuanes went to attack the Lipan Apache in the vicinity of Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá, which they destroyed.[11]
The tribe continued their southern migration into Texas and northern Mexico, where they allied with the Lipan Apache.[2][12]
19th century
[edit]In 1824, the Tonkawa entered into a treaty with Stephen F. Austin to protect Anglo-American immigrants against the Comanche. At the time, Austin was an agent recruiting immigrants to settle in the Mexican state of Coahuila y Texas. In 1840 at the Battle of Plum Creek and again in 1858 at the Battle of Little Robe Creek, the Tonkawa fought alongside the Texas Rangers against the Comanche.[13] March 5th, 1842 the Mexican Army under Ráfael Vásquez (general) marched into Texas and seized San Antonio. Months later in support of the Republic of Texas the Tonkawa and Lipans were mustered for an expedition against the Mexican invasion: "We understand that the whole tribe of Lipans and Tonkewas (sic) have been ordered to move to the vicinity of Corpus Christi, to accompany the army on its march to the Rio Grande".[14]
The Tonkawas often visited the capital city of Austin during the days of the Republic of Texas (1836–1846) and during early statehood in the mid-19th century.
In 1859, the United States forcibly removed the Tonkawa and other Texas Indian tribes to the Wichita Agency in Indian Territory, and placed them under the protection of nearby Fort Cobb.[2]
During American Civil War, the Tonkawa allied with the Confederacy.[2] Texas also declared for the Confederacy, so the federal troops at the fort received orders to march to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, leaving the Indians at the Wichita Agency unprotected. On October 24, 1862, Pro-Union tribes, including the Delaware, Shawnee, and Osage decimated the Tonkawa in the Tonkawa Massacre.[15] After the Civil War, Union forces occupied Texas, and as many as 135 Tonkawa were escorted back north out of Austin in 1867 by the Indian agent.[16][17]
The United States briefly resettled the Tonkawa in Texas after the Civil War,[15] but in 1884, they were forced to move from Fort Griffin to the Oakland Agency in northern Indian Territory, present-day Kay County. They arrived on June 29, 1885,[1] and have remained there to the present.[15] This journey involved going to Cisco, Texas, where they boarded a railroad train that took them to Stroud in Indian Territory, where they spent the winter at the Sac and Fox Agency. The Tonkawas traveled 100 miles (160 km) to the Ponca Agency, and arrived at nearby Fort Oakland on June 30, 1885.[a]
On October 21, 1891, the tribe signed an agreement with the Cherokee Commission to accept individual allotments of land.[19]
20th century
[edit]By 1921, only 34 tribal members remained. Their numbers have since increased to close to 950 as of 2023.[20] The Tonkawa Tribe of Oklahoma incorporated under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act in 1938.[18]
Government
[edit]The Tonkawa Tribe is led by an elected president and council. Their current president is Russell Martin.[1]
Economy
[edit]The Tonkawa tribe operates several businesses which had an annual economic impact of over $10,860,657 in 2011.[21] Along with several smoke shops, the tribe runs three different casinos: Tonkawa Indian Casino and Tonkawa Gasino located in Tonkawa, Oklahoma, and the Native Lights Casino in Newkirk, Oklahoma.[22] The Tonkawa Hotel and Casino has a steakhouse, the Buffalo Grill and Lounge.[23]
Land
[edit]The Tonkawa's tribal jurisdictional area is in Kay County, Oklahoma, and their headquartered are in Tonkawa, Oklahoma.[1]
A 60-acre property (24 ha), was purchased by the Tonkawa Tribe in 2023 in commemoration of its status as a site sacred to the Tonkawa.[20] Sugarloaf Mountain, the highest point in Milam County, Texas, will become part of a historical park.[24]
Events
[edit]
The annual Tonkawa Powwow is held on the last weekend in June to commemorate the end of the tribe's own Trail of Tears when the tribe was forcefully removed and relocated from its traditional lands to present-day Oklahoma.[25]
The City of Austin and leadership from the Tonkawa Tribe celebrated Austin-Tonkawa Friendship Day on September 12, 2024.[26]
Tonkawa bands
[edit]The Tonkawa were made up of various groups.[3] These groups are generally counted as Tonkawa:
Additional bands, such as the Nonapho, Sijame, and Simaomo may have also have Tonkawan bands.[3]
Notable Tonkawa
[edit]- Plácido (ca. 1788–1862), chief who allied with Stephen F. Austin
- Clara Archilta (Tonkawa/Apache/Kiowa, 1912–1994), painter and beadworker
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ From 1879 to 1885, some of the Nez Perce people who had surrendered at the end of the Nez Perce war had lived at Fort Oakland, near the present site of Tonkawa, Oklahoma[18]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f "Tonkawa Tribe of Oklahoma". Southern Plains Tribal Health Board. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f g May, Jon D. "Tonkawa (tribe)". The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Oklahoma Historical Society. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f Swanton, [https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Indian_Tribes_of_North_America/Xpx6WoPz7xIC The Indian Tribes of North America, p. 326
- ^ Frawley, William (2003). International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (second ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195307450. OCLC 66910002.
- ^ Hoijer, Harry (1933). Tonkawa, an Indian language of Texas. University of Pittsburgh Library System. New York : Columbia University Press.
- ^ "Tonkawa Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma". ICWA Designated Agents Listing. U.S. Department of the Interior, Indian Affairs. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
- ^ The Prehistory of Texas, Timothy K. Perttula (Editor). Texas A&M University Press, 2012, p.22, p.217
- ^ Carlisle, Jeffrey D. Tonkawa Indians. Handbook of Texas. Published 1952, updated 2021. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/tonkawa-indians
- ^ Prikryl, Daniel J. Fiction and Fact about the Titskanwatits, or Tonkawa, of East Central Texas. Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 72:63–72, 2001.
- ^ Gary Clayton Anderson, The Indian Southwest, 1580-1830: Ethnogenesis and Reinvention (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999) p. 85
- ^ Anderson, The Indian Southwest, p. 89
- ^ Walker, Jeff (November 16, 2007). "Chief returns » Local News » San Marcos Record, San Marcos, TX". Sanmarcosrecord.com. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved November 11, 2011.
- ^ Gwynne, S. C. (2011). Empire of the Summer Moon: Quanah Parker and the Rise and Fall of the Comanches, the Most Powerful Indian Tribe in American History. Scribner. pp. 7, 211. ISBN 978-1-4165-9106-1.
- ^ Colorado Gazette and Advertiser, Matagorda, Texas, July 9, 1842
- ^ a b c May, Jon D. "Tonkawa Massacre". The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History. Oklahoma History Center. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
- ^ Winfrey, Dorman H. & Day, James M. The Indian Papers of Texas and the Southwest 1825-1916, Volume 4, pp.188-195
- ^ Tonkawa Tribe of Oklahoma, Tribal histories project. Texas Department of Transportation
- ^ a b "Tonkawa Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma." Oklahoma State Department of Education. Oklahoma Indian Tribe Education Guide. July 2014. Accessed October 28, 2018.
- ^ Deloria Jr., Vine J; DeMaille, Raymond J (1999). Documents of American Indian Diplomacy Treaties, Agreements, and Conventions, 1775-1979. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 346–348. ISBN 978-0-8061-3118-4.
- ^ a b Miller, Alex (December 23, 2023). "How the Tonkawa Tribe bought back sacred Sugarloaf Mountain in Central Texas". Waco Tribune-Herald. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
- ^ 2011 Oklahoma Indian Nations Pocket Pictorial Directory. Archived 2012-04-24 at the Wayback Machine Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commission. 2011: 36. Retrieved 8 Feb 2012.
- ^ "Tonkawa Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma". Oklahoma Casino List by Tribe. 500 Nations. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
- ^ Gerian, Charles (January 26, 2022). "Tonkawa Casino gets gourmet steakhouse". Blackwell Journal-Tribue. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
- ^ Barnes, Michael (January 17, 2024). "'We're home': 140 years after forced exile, the Tonkawa reclaim a sacred part of Texas". USA TODAY. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
- ^ Tonkawa Tribal History. Archived 2009-03-04 at the Wayback Machine The Tonkawa Tribe. (retrieved 7 Feb 2009)
- ^ Barnes, Michael (August 29, 2024). "'For us, it's always been Texas, Texas, Texas': Tonkawa leaders return to thankful Austin". Austin American-Statesman. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
Bibliography
[edit]- Swanton, John Reed (2003). The Indian Tribes of North America. Genealogical Publishing Company. pp. 326–27. ISBN 9780806317304.
Further reading
[edit]- Himmel, Kelly F. (1999). The conquest of the Karankawas and the Tonkawas, 1821-1859. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-0-89096-867-3.
External links
[edit]
- Official website
- Jeffrey D. Carlisle: Tonkawa Indians from the Handbook of Texas Online
| Federally recognized tribes | |
|---|---|
| Indigenous languages | |
| Historical Indigenous peoples of Texas (Several are in Oklahoma today) |
|
| Related topics | |
† extinct language / ≠ extinct tribe / >< early, obsolete name of Indigenous tribe / ° people absorbed into other tribe(s) / * headquartered in Oklahoma today | |
